Through the Memory Lane: Internet’s Various Stages And How It Enabled Women’s Participation

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The internet as we know it today is a vast network of interconnected computers and devices that have changed the way we live, work, and communicate. But its origins go back much further – decades before even the first website was ever created. 

During the Cold War in the 1950s and 1960s, the US government was deeply concerned about the potential for a nuclear attack by the Soviet Union. They recognised that in the event of such an attack, traditional forms of communication would likely be destroyed, making it difficult for the government to coordinate its response. To address this concern, they began funding research into the development of a communication system that would be able to withstand a nuclear attack.

One of the key figures in this early research was Paul Baran, an engineer at the RAND Corporation, a research institute in the US. Baran proposed a system called packet switching, which would allow data to be broken up into small packets that could be sent across a network of computers. These packets would be able to find their way to their destination even if some of the network's components were destroyed. Another key figure in the early development of the internet was Robert Taylor, a computer scientist at the Pentagon's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Taylor recognised the potential of packet switching and began funding research into the development of a network that would be able to connect computers at various research institutions across the country. 

This network, which was called ARPANET, was the first operational packet switching network, and was officially launched in 1969. The goal of the project was to develop a new way of connecting computers that would allow for more efficient communication and collaboration between researchers. While ARPANET was a significant achievement, it was still a relatively small network that was only used by a small group of researchers. However, it was the foundation upon which the modern internet would be built. In the early 1970s, a group of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed a new protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This protocol allowed different networks to communicate with each other and became the standard for all internet communication.

While this community building enabled everyone to connect with others, it has had a profound impact on women's participation in society whose access to the internet has increased significantly in recent years enabling them to connect with others, access information, and engage in economic and political activities.

The introduction of TCP/IP had a profound impact on the development of the internet. It allowed different networks to be connected together, creating a global network of computers that could communicate with each other. This was the birth of the internet as we know it today. As the internet grew, new technologies and services were developed to make it more useful and accessible to a wider range of people. One of the key innovations of this period was the development of the World Wide Web (WWW). The WWW was created by Tim Berners-Lee, a computer scientist at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research). Berners-Lee developed a system of hypertext links that allowed users to easily navigate between different pages of information on the internet. This made the internet much more user-friendly and led to the creation of the first websites. The World Wide Web was officially launched in 1991, and it quickly became one of the most popular services on the internet. The first website, which was hosted at CERN, was a simple page of text and hyperlinks. However, as more and more people began creating websites, the internet began to take on a new form. Websites became more complex, and new technologies such as JavaScript and Flash allowed for the creation of more interactive and dynamic pages. The internet continued to grow and evolve throughout the 1990s and 2000s. New technologies like the broadband and wireless networks made it possible for more people to access the internet from home. Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter allowed people to connect with each other in new ways and gave rise to the phenomenon of online communities. 

While this community building enabled everyone to connect with others, it has had a profound impact on women's participation in society whose access to the internet has increased significantly in recent years enabling them to connect with others, access information, and engage in economic and political activities. Throughout this text, we aim to explore the ways in which women have become forceful agents in shaping the internet and providing a space for more inclusivity.

The evolution of the internet

Web 1.0

Years active: Late 1990s 
Developer: Various individuals and organisations involved in web development 
Main features: Use of hyperlinks and static web pages, with minimal interactivity.
Purpose: To disseminate text-based information to users.

Web 1.0, also known as the "static web," refers to the first generation of the World Wide Web that emerged in the late 1990s. This era of the internet was characterised by simple, static, and largely text-based websites linked together through hyperlinks, where most websites were created using HTML and were not interactive or dynamic. Web1 was built on the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and was primarily accessed through web browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. 

These pages were typically created and maintained by hand, with HTML code being manually written and edited by web developers. They were not frequently updated and as a result, most web pages were static and did not change very often. They were a one-way communication tool intended for information dissemination and as a platform for online brochures, news articles, and basic e-commerce sites to be accessed by the few users who were aware of and had access to it. Another characteristic of Web 1.0 was the dominance of large corporations and established media companies like AOL, Yahoo and Microsoft who controlled the majority of the content on the internet leading to the lack of diversity and homogeneity of voices. Despite its limitations, Web 1.0 was a significant step forward in the development of the internet. It established the basic infrastructure and technologies that would be used to create the more dynamic and interactive web of today. For example, it also paved the way for the development of search engines like Yahoo and AltaVista, which allowed users to easily find and access specific information online, and they played a crucial role in making the internet more accessible to users.

Women and Web 1.0

Web 1.0 was the first step in the democratisation of information. With the advent of the internet, information became more accessible and widely available to people around the world who had access, however the gender imbalance in technology at that time was even more pronounced than it is today. The tech industry was mainly male-dominated, and this was reflected in the development of the early web. 

The gender gap in computer sciences and related fields was evident in the design and content of the early web, which often reinforced gender stereotypes and biases. 

Despite these challenges, women played important roles in shaping the early web. For example, Ada Lovelace, widely considered to be the world's first computer programmer, developed the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine in the mid-1800s. In the 1960s and 1970s, women such as Grace Hopper and Adele Goldberg made significant contributions to computer science, laying the groundwork for the development of the internet and the World Wide Web. In the decades since the early web, there has been progress towards greater gender equity in technology.

Male-dominated discussions in online forums and chats were also cited as evidence of the internet's inequality and power imbalances, mirroring the inequalities of the offline world.

In 2001, Tanja Carstensen identified two discussions of Web 1.0 in its early developments. On the one hand there was a perception of the internet as a (cis) male-dominated domain, referred to as a "gendered net." One factor was the association between technology and masculinity, which led to the perception that the internet was a space primarily for (cisgender) men. Additionally, the delayed access of women to the internet and the presence of androcentric content further reinforced this perception. Male-dominated discussions in online forums and chats were also cited as evidence of the internet's inequality and power imbalances, mirroring the inequalities of the offline world.[1]

Around this time, the emergence of cyberfeminism expressed hope that the internet would dissolve the distinctions between technology and humanity, as well as between genders, men and women (primarily responding to poststructuralist analysis, Judith Butler and Donna Haraway.)

Web 2.0

Years active: Early 2000s to present 
Developer: Various individuals and organisations involved in web development
Main features: Dynamic web pages and increased user interactivity. It facilitated the creation and sharing of user-generated content, along with social networking, collaboration, and multimedia elements. 
Purpose: To foster user participation and collaboration, transforming the internet from a one-way information source into an interactive platform where users could contribute and engage with others.

The term "Web 2.0" was first coined by O'Reilly Media in 2004,[2] but the concept had been developing for several years prior. Web2, also known as Web 2.0, is a term used to describe the second generation of the World Wide Web. It refers to the emergence of new technologies and practices that have enabled users to interact with the web in new and dynamic ways. Unlike Web 1.0, Web2 is characterised by a shift from static, one-way communication to dynamic, two-way communication that we experience today.

In the late 1990s, a number of new technologies and concepts began to emerge that would change the way the internet worked. One of the most important of these was the development of the web application programming interface (API). APIs allowed developers to create web applications that could interact with other web applications, making it much easier to create dynamic, interactive websites.

Another important development was the rise of social media. Websites like MySpace and Facebook allowed users to create profiles, share information, and connect with other users, making the internet much more social.

Meanwhile, the rise of the blogs also played a significant role in the development of Web 2.0, allowing users to easily create and share content, ultimately making it possible for anyone to have a voice on the internet, and democratised the web space as a result.

The inclusion of the masses in content generation on the internet has also led to a more diverse web, where users can access a wide variety of information and perspectives, rather than being limited to the content created by a small group of people dictating what online spaces should look like.

This has led to a more participatory and collaborative web, where users are no longer simply passive consumers of content like in Web 1.0 but active participants in the creation and sharing of information.

The inclusion of the masses in content generation on the internet has also led to a more diverse web, where users can access a wide variety of information and perspectives, rather than being limited to the content created by a small group of people dictating what online spaces should look like. The Web 2.0 as we use it today has enabled people to earn a living, educate and share knowledge, and make it the mode of primary communication for themselves.

The emergence of Web2 has led to a more participatory, collaborative, democratic web, and a more diverse web. However, it also poses risks that are proving to be challenging to regulate. For example, constant privacy breaches, increased hate speech, gender based violence, attacks on freedom of expression, among others, are yet to be tackled successfully, in a way that does not pose risk to people’s fundamental rights. The centralised nature of Web 2.0 that gives control of users' data to a few tech corporations adds to this challenge.

Women and WEB 2.0

The widespread access to social media has made it evident how offline patriarchal dynamics have been replicated online. The rise of Online Gender-based Violence (OGBV), also known as tech-facilitated gender based violence (tfGBV), can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the anonymity provided by online spaces can embolden perpetrators to engage in abusive behaviour without fear of immediate consequences. Additionally, societal norms and attitudes that perpetuate sexism, misogyny, and gender inequality often manifest and amplify online, contributing to the prevalence of OGBV.

According to UN Women, "The most common forms of violence reported were misinformation and defamation (67 per cent), cyber harassment (66 per cent), hate speech (65 per cent), impersonation (63 per cent), hacking and stalking (63 per cent), astroturfing (a coordinated effort to concurrently share damaging content across platforms, 58 per cent), video and image-based abuse (57 per cent), doxing (55 per cent), violent threats (52 per cent), and the reception of unwanted images or sexually explicit content (43 per cent).”[3] And this is taking place at the global scale.

The COVID.-19 pandemic has amplified this and even made visible how gender-diverse communities experience different forms of violence in relation to poverty, geopolitical location and algorithmic predetermination. This has resulted in many of them leaving online spaces in hopes for the abuse to stop, leading to a gap in representation of diverse identities on the internet.

On the other hand, social media has also connected women and gender diverse people across geographies, and has inspired different communities to activate infrastructures that would facilitate financial autonomy in spite of societal predetermination.

Societal norms and attitudes that perpetuate sexism, misogyny, and gender inequality often manifest and amplify online, contributing to the prevalence of OGBV.

It has also elevated conversations around agency and the possibility to connect over mutual and shared affinities. In 2021, Legacy Russell released the book ”Glitch Feminism” which explores proto-web3 ideas and dissects the presence of marginalised communities within web2. As researcher Doreen Rios points out, ”Glitch Feminism recognizes the value of visuality and the revolutionary role that digital practices play in the expansion of archeologies, deconstructions, and representations of bodies, and, simultaneously, maintains a critical perspective on how various antagonistic dualisms seem to be maintained on the plane of the digital: virtual/real, nature/culture and, of course, masculine/feminine."

Web 3.0

Years active: Ongoing development, with emerging technologies and concepts. 
Developer: Various individuals, organisations, and emerging technologies. 
Main features: Incorporates advanced technologies like artificial intelligence, blockchain, and the Internet of Things. It focuses on providing personalised and context-aware experiences, decentralised data ownership, enhanced privacy, and seamless integration across devices and platforms.
Purpose: Aims to create a more "intelligent", interconnected, and user-centric web experience, leveraging emerging technologies to provide enhanced personalisation, security, and better connectivity in various aspects of online interactions.

Web 3, also known as the "decentralised web" or the blockchain web, is the next iteration of the internet. It is a network of "decentralised systems” and applications that are built on top of blockchain technology, aiming to give users more control over their data and online activities. This means that privacy is built into the architecture of web 3.0, rather than being an afterthought like in Web 2.0 where it is a constant issue. As McKenzie Wark has written in Capital is Dead (2021), this means that often users are engaging in invisible labour, when their data is extracted and sold to advertisers for profit, to engage in cycles of consumption. 

While this technology holds great potential for improving online privacy, security, and autonomy, it also comes with a number of challenges that must be addressed in order to be successfully implemented.

Web 3 is deemed as a departure from the current centralised model of the internet or Web 2.0 where a few large companies and organisations control the flow of information and access to data. Web 3 also brings about the possibility of decentralised identity management. This means that individuals have control over their own personal information, rather than having it controlled by corporations.

One of the key features of Web 3 is the use of smart contracts. A smart contract is a self-executing contract with the terms of the agreement between buyer and seller being directly written into lines of code. Smart contracts allow for the automation of transactions and the elimination of intermediaries, such as banks or lawyers. This allows for faster, cheaper, and more secure transactions. For example, for digital artists working with non-fungible tokens (NTFs), this allows them to design a contract as a prerequisite for the transaction of their artwork with one or multiple galleries and among multiple collectors, verifying the transactions in real time. This is very important, as it is the first time in which artists are able to sell their work and receive royalties as their pieces are transacted among different collectors over time, which hasn’t been the case in the traditional "material" art world.

While this technology holds great potential for improving online privacy, security, and autonomy, it also comes with a number of challenges that must be addressed in order to be successfully implemented.

In addition to the technological advancements, Web 3 also brings about a change in the way we interact with the internet. One of the most significant benefits of Web 3 is the potential for greater financial inclusion. Decentralised Finance (DeFi) is a rapidly growing sector within Web 3 which allows individuals to access financial services without the need for intermediaries, such as banks. This can be especially beneficial for individuals in underbanked or unbanked communities, who often have limited access to financial services.

Finally, this iteration of the internet has seen the amplification of AI-assisted tools, applications or systems that utilise artificial intelligence techniques to assist and enhance decision-making processes and improve cognition-based tasks. This includes large language models, as well as image and video generative software.

Challenges and feminist propositions

Governments around the world have yet to establish clear regulations for Web 3.0, and it is unclear how it will be treated under existing laws. This can make it difficult for businesses and individuals to use Web 3.0, and can create uncertainty for developers and investors. To address this challenge, governments and regulators need to establish clear and consistent regulations for the new technology, and provide guidance on how it will be regulated.

There are a number of feminist perspectives on Web 3.0 and equity that have emerged in recent years. One perspective is that the technology, including blockchain and decentralised finance (DeFi), has the potential to empower women and other marginalised groups by providing them with greater access to financial resources and decision-making power. This could be achieved through the use of "decentralised" governance models, which could enable more equitable distribution of resources and decision-making power.

In a conversation I had with Anasuya Sengupta, a poet and author from India, earlier this year, she argued that decentralisation has become a buzzword used by big tech to describe models that, at core, haven’t abandoned centralised architectures. Technology isn’t neutral in the sense that technoscientific development is usually at the service of governments and big tech, oriented by a necessity to improve militaristic intelligence. It utilises existing resources and shapes the world to align with its own requirements. It establishes new industries and develops machines that may not necessarily prioritise human progress but are highly efficient for the accumulation of capital.

Until recently, blockchain transactions were associated with a significant ecological toll. The traditional proof-of-work consensus algorithm, employed by popular cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, used extensive computational power and energy consumption. The feminist critique extends to the exploitation of labour, land, data, and resources by big tech companies, supply chains of technology companies rely on the extraction of minerals and the emissions caused by data processing. These supply chains are also linked to sourcing in conflict zones, deforestation, and human rights abuses that impact indigenous communities directly. 

Other feminist perspectives coming from in-practice Web 3.0 point to the value in DAOs (Decentralised Autonomous Organizations). DAOs would offer a solution by providing a clear and effective governance structure through decision-making on the blockchain. According to Xinran Lai, a researcher from China with an interest in decentralised technology, ”All rules and operations are stored on the blockchain and can only be changed through a voting process, ensuring transparency and autonomy. The open nature of organisational data reduces corruption possibilities, promoting equality and openness.” Xinran expands on this topic, introducing a case study of Zebpay, an Indian cryptocurrency exchange, with the goal of empowering women globally to participate in the crypto industry. This initiative aims to create a more inclusive environment and provide women with the resources they need to engage in the world of cryptocurrencies. Similarly, H.E.R. DAO is another notable example of a female-led DAO. The acronym H.E.R. stands for "holistic, emancipation, and resource," representing the organisation's dedication to promoting gender diversity within the blockchain and Web 3.0 ecosystem.

Technology isn’t neutral in the sense that technoscientific development is usually at the service of governments and big tech, oriented by a necessity to improve militaristic intelligence. It utilises existing resources and shapes the world to align with its own requirements. It establishes new industries and develops machines that may not necessarily prioritise human progress but are highly efficient for the accumulation of capital.

More recently, traditional NGOs like Outright International, a 2SLGBTQI+ organisation, has embraced cryptocurrency donations and has worked with NFT projects to support advocacy against criminalisation worldwide. As a trans person engaged in the art world, I have discovered a greater sense of community support within the realm of Web3 compared to the traditional art industry. In my experience, the Web3 space has provided an inclusive and empowering environment that embraces diversity and fosters collaboration. Unlike the traditional art world, which can sometimes be exclusive and hierarchical, Web3 platforms and communities have welcomed individuals from various backgrounds. 

Web 3 envisions a future where individuals have greater control over their personal data, privacy is enhanced, and power is distributed more equitably, however as we learned from its previous iterations which aimed at similar goals, it comes with challenging propositions. The internet is a complex and multifaceted space, characterised by its vastness and diversity. It serves as a global network connecting individuals from all walks of life, cultures, and ideologies. Given this complexity, it is important to acknowledge that there are no one-size-fits-all solutions that can address the diverse needs and challenges of everyone on the internet. Different individuals and communities have unique perspectives, experiences, and requirements, making it crucial to approach internet-related issues with an open mind and a willingness to adapt. Recognising the intricacies of the internet allows us to embrace a more nuanced and inclusive approach, fostering dialogue, collaboration, and the exploration of diverse solutions that can better serve the diverse needs of communities in this digital age.